It is incredibly likely those of you reading this paper are currently wearing at least one garment comprised of a fabric called polyester. In essence, polyester differs from traditional, natural textiles because it is woven from plastic thread, making it cheaper and more durable, but also (generally) more uncomfortable and pollutive. Common Objective, a platform designed to connect sustainable clothing manufacturers and retailers, reports that “Polyester made up 52% of fibres produced globally in 2020,” surpassing even cotton as our world’s most ubiquitous textile (“Fibre Briefing”). Given polyester’s current and increasing prevalence within the apparel industry, and the diversity of opinions surrounding said ubiquity, an evaluation of polyester’s merits and faults is relevant and timely. In this paper we will discuss how varied prioritizations of factors like pollution avoidance, physical comfort, personal style, recyclability, sustainability, and affordability cause different groups of consumers and producers to either shun or support continued polyester production and use.
Polyester is created when crude petroleum oil is refined, polymerized (made into plastic pellets), and then melted and drawn out into thin threads, called fibers (“Pros and Cons”). Because polyester is not grown in fields, its production requires less land and water–but more energy–than the production of natural fibers like cotton (“Fibre Briefing”). Industrial machines spin and weave the polyester fiber into fabric, seamstresses sew the fabric into clothing, and retailers ship and distribute the clothing to consumers. This whole process is energy intensive and pollutive, as evidenced by the fact that “10% of the planet’s carbon emissions are caused by the fashion industry” (“Pros and Cons”). Each level of the global garment supply chain, from polymerization to distribution, is mainly powered by pollutive fossil fuels. Consumers who want to be conscious of their ecological footprint must recognize the proportionally large impact of polyester production.
However, polyester fabric’s plastic composition does afford it unique physical characteristics. Clothing made from polyester is resistant to strain, deformation, mildew, and moths. It is simple to clean and slow to wrinkle, which allows consumers to spend less time caring for their clothes (“What is polyester”). Polyester is also noted to be water resistant, which is fantastic when one is out in the rain, but less fantastic when one sweats, causing one’s polyester clothing to feel humid and clammy (“Pros and Cons”). Thus, stickiness when worn is often a major turn-off for consumers looking to purchase polyester clothing.
Thankfully, polyester is straightforward to blend with other fibers. Cotton-poly blends are softer and more breathable than 100% polyester, while also being cheaper and stronger than 100% cotton (“Pros and Cons”). This greater strength can improve a garment’s longevity, but also can impair the attractiveness of the cloth by increasing the extent to which the surface forms pills (small, unattractive, annoying balls of lint). Blending polyester with cotton ultimately increases the tenacity of fibers which anchor these pills to the surface of the garment (Napper 5). Thus, the presence of larger and more persistent pills causes these articles of clothing to appear to age prematurely.
Other than its propensity to pill and lack of breathability, polyester is occasionally unpleasant to wear for other reasons. When one sweats on one’s clothing, the extent to which the fabric will absorb and then re-emit odor is dependent on the structure and fiber content of the garment. In a 2018 academic publication, a group of textile researchers, after quantitatively studying fabric odor retention, find that “the 100% polyester fabric showed the strongest odor intensity” of the blends they studied (Wang 6). Polyester’s affinity for odor adhesion, combined with aforementioned struggles with breathability, means the fabric is not often a producer’s first choice for athletic applications.
However, advances in spinning and weaving technology might be changing polyester’s status within the athletic sector. Jong Stit, the self-proclaimed leading polyester textile manufacturer of Thailand, enthusiastically disagrees with all assertations of polyester’s physical discomfort. In a section of their article “Advantages of polyester fabric over cotton fabric” they say,
Even though polyester fabric is made from synthetic fiber, it can be more breathable as equal as natural fabric, by adding chemicals or using special mechanical techniques. This makes polyester fabric a good material for sportswear because of its breathability, quick-drying, and doesn’t feel gooey or heavy when you sweat a lot while exercising. (“Advantages”)
While grammatical inconsistencies likely resulting from translation errors slightly undermine Jong Stit’s perceived reliability, their statement that innovation is increasing the comfort and breathability of polyester fabric is reliably confirmed by other sources. One such source, VNPOLYFIBER, another polyester manufacturer, affirms that microfiber wicking technology is changing the athleisure game for polyester (“What is polyester”).
Ultimately, polyester fiber provides uniquely high quality for low cost because it is easy to fabricate, blend, and dye, while still being durable (“Pros and Cons”). Ipek Yalcin-Enis, in a comprehensive literature review titled “Risks and Management of Textile Waste,” discusses the apparel sector’s relationship with economic practicality, high quality production, and sustainable practice. He points out that just like food and shelter, clothing is a “necessity in human being’s lives” (Yalcin-Enis 31). Clothes keep people physically safe while displaying societally important information about a person’s skills and priorities.
Definitionally, fashion is the industry concerned with clothing as a communication device. In recent years, retailers have accelerated the pace at which they revise fashionable styles, in order to pressure customers to purchase more clothing. Manufacturers also increasingly cut corners during the production process so that clothes are even more frail and less expensive. This pattern of frequent trend redefinition, low quality production, and overconsumption characterizes “fast fashion” (Yalcin-Enis 31). Fast fashion is problematic because when these poorly constructed garments fall out of favor or tear at the seams (whichever comes first), consumers simply throw the extraneous garments away.
The problem, in the words of BYU Environmental Biology professor Dr. Steve Peterson, is that “there is no ‘away.’” Garments which are not donated for resale, or recycled into new products, end up in landfills (Yalcin-Enis 30). When left to rot in the garbage, our modern clothing instead languishes for eternities, because petrochemicals fundamentally aren’t biodegradable (Fibre Briefing). Polyester’s strength and durability thus also prove to be a critical flaw.
That being said, fabric, even when made from plastic, is recyclable. Jong Stit, in their aforementioned polyester praise article, says polyester is an environmentally friendly fabric option because it is “completely recyclable” (“Advantages”). In contrast, Yalcin-Enis finds that “ninety-seven percent of textile waste can be recycled” where only 15% actually is recovered (Yalcin-Enis 38, emphasis added). This data disagrees with the Jong Stit’s statement and indicates our current recapture and reuse strategies are performing less than optimally. In order to determine the validity of these seemingly opposing perspectives, let us discuss the processes and impacts of recycling.
There are two primary methods of recycling. The first is mechanical, where the product is physically broken down into small, reusable pieces. When fabric is mechanically recycled, it is shredded into fluff, which can be used as insulation or stuffing. The second form is chemical recycling, where (usually plastic) products are melted, purified, broken down into their chemical constituent parts, and reconfigured into a useful product. However, it is important to note two caveats of chemical recycling. First, plastic cannot be recycled indefinitely. Each time the plastic is melted and re-polymerized it loses a small amount of structural integrity. Recycled plastic is still fantastically reliable, but after hundreds of cycles, it will become less so. Second, scientists and manufacturers are only able to chemically recycle pure, 100% polyester fabric. With current technology, it is functionally impossible to separate out polyester for chemical recycling once it has been blended with cotton or linen (“Fibre Briefing”).
Ultimately, recycling can minimize fabric in landfills, while also minimizing the quantities of raw fiber needed to fill demand. As Yalcin-Enis explains, the purpose of recycling is “to maximize material service per resource input while reducing environmental impacts and resource usage” (Yalcin-Enis 7). Fabric recycling, by reinvigorating old products, makes our supply chain more sustainable. The goal of sustainable development is to develop a circular economy—one where products lose very little economic value as they are used and reused.
The polyester sector has also become more sustainable through the utilization of recycled plastic as source material. VNPOLYFIBER, a Vietnamese recycled polyester manufacturer, is one such company which uses rPET, the product of recycled disposable water bottles, instead of crude oil to synthesize fiber (“Fibre Briefing”). By utilizing rPET, VNPOLYFIBER increases demand for recycled plastic while decreasing demand for newly drilled oil. Thus, through recycling, polyester can give a second life to used plastic, or can itself be given a second life and kept out of landfills.
Although recycling can keep polyester out of landfills, polyester cannot be kept out of the environment entirely. Because fabric is woven from fibrous thread, all fabric sheds fibers into the environment (Napper 1). In the case of natural fibers like cotton or wool, this shedding is inconsequential because the microfibers biodegrade. Polyester microfibers, in contrast, are non-biodegradable microplastics, which have the potential to cause serious harm to ecosystems when ingested by fish and other organisms (Napper 1). That being said, it is comforting to know that simply wearing garments while out and about does not release very many microfibers into the environment.
However, it is troubling to realize that washing clothing in a washing machine does release large numbers of microfibers. These fiber microplastics are too small to be catchable by residential wastewater treatment plants, so they freely travel through waterways, and eventually accumulate in lakes and oceans (Napper 1). Imogen E. Napper, aka “The Plastic Detective,” is a National Geographic marine biologist who seeks to uncover sources of aquatic plastic pollution. In a paper published in 2016, Napper studies the relationship between fabric type, washing conditions, and microfiber release. She and her team washed samples made of either acrylic, 100% polyester, or 65/35 blended poly-cotton, and found that the “polyester-cotton blend was consistently found to shed fewer fibres than both the other fabrics, regardless of the differing treatments” (Napper 3). This information, that cotton-poly blends release fewer microplastic fibers into the environment, is critical for the environmentally conscious clothing consumer to understand. In light of this study, one such consumer might decide to wear only cotton-poly blends, in order to minimize the pollution they cause.
On the other hand, environmentalists are known to prioritize reuse and recycling. As discussed earlier, cotton-poly blends are quick to pill. This excessive pilling makes these clothes appear to wear more quickly, which makes it harder for them to be reused or maintain resale value when donated to stores like Goodwill. Blended polyester can be mechanically recycled into lower-value insulation or pillow filler but cannot be truly recycled into “new” plastic which would maintain comparable economic value. Given the reuse and recycling issues blended polyester has, an environmentally minded consumer might decide to buy only 100% percent polyester, because it stays looking and feeling polished for longer, making it more resalable, while still being completely recyclable.
Nonetheless, environmental scientists are also real people (with real feelings and real limits to their wallets). Just like all other sets of consumers, they want their clothes to be affordable, durable, and easy to care for, like polyester is, while also being dry and odorless when hiking and sweating, like polyester is not. Additionally, as much as environmentally minded consumers would like to claim they individually are outside of the need to conform to fast fashion trends as they purchase textiles, clothing is inherently connected to societal perception. If an undergraduate scientist needs to present her research to professors, she simply has to wear clothing appropriate for the formality of that situation. If she does not already own appropriate clothes and has only a small budget of time and money to work with as she acquires her specific outfit, those constraints will shape her fabric selection much more than her concern with microfibers or recycling. Often, only the most affluent are free to be truly selective with their fabric choices as they navigate society’s implied or systematized dress codes.
Fundamentally, garment manufacturers and retailers shape the apparel industry. There are three criteria manufacturers realistically need to consider as they design and produce textiles like polyester: “1) performance in service, giving a long-lasting product that remains attractive during usage; 2) minimal release of non-degradable synthetic fibres and 3) a product that is compatible with end-of-life recycling.” (Napper 6). Although various interest groups disagree in what order we should place these three listed priorities, each voice affirms the independent importance of all three points. People need to be clothed, societies need to support economic growth, and the Earth needs to be clean. Let us be thoughtful and well-informed as we seek to meet these diverse global needs in a balanced, equitable way.
Works Cited
“Advantages of polyester fabric over cotton fabric.” Jong Stit, 8 Feb. 2023, https://www.jongstit.com/en/blog/advantages-of-polyester-fabric-over-cotton-fabric.
“Fibre Briefing: Polyester.” Common Objective, 22 Oct. 2021, https://www.commonobjective.co/article/fibre-briefing-polyester.
“Pros and Cons of Polyester – the Most Common Synthetic Fiber.” SCI (Sport Casuals International), 14 Nov. 2023, www.sportcasuals.com/news/polyester-pros-cons.
Napper, Imogen E., Thompson Richard C. “Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: Effects of fabric type and washing conditions.” Marine Pollution Bulletin, vol. 112, no. 1–2, Nov. 2016, pp. 39–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.09.025.
Wang J, Lu X, Wang J, Wang X. “Quantitative and sensory evaluation of odor retention on polyester/wool blends.” Textile Research Journal, vol. 89, no. 13, 18 Sep. 2018, pp. 2729-2738, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0040517518801183.
“What is polyester fabric?” VNPOLYFIBER, 4 Nov. 2020, https://vnpolyfiber.com/what-is-polyester-fabric/.
Yalcin-Enis, Ipek, et al. “Risks and Management of Textile Waste.” SpringerLink, Springer International Publishing, 6 Feb. 2019, pp. 29-53, link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-97922-9_2.
Recycling Our Rags: Apparel Reuse is Simpler Than You Think
I am currently wearing my absolute favorite pair of flowy track pants. Because I adore them, I plan to utilize these pants until they are completely tattered. Then, I will probably throw them away, as one does.
However, my pants are made of 89% polyester blended with 11% elastane. These two synthetic fibers are created when petroleum is spun into thread. Basically, polyester and elastane are plastic, which makes me reconsider my earlier statement:
Where is away??
Here in developed countries, away is our euphemism for the landfill.
Because my pants are made of 100% plastic, they are 100% Not Biodegradable. As sustainability platform Common Objective points out, once these synthetic fibers land in a dump, there they will stay. Forever.
Landfills are suboptimal cemeteries for clothes. Individually and industrially, I believe we can and should practice recycling and reuse more ubiquitously within the clothing sector. You’ll come to agree that downcycling, mending, and thrifting are simple but important practices to adopt.
Our global accumulation of waste is problematic. In Ipek Yalcin-Enis’s study summarizing the problems we have with textile trash specifically, he says that because we neglect to dispose of waste properly, we allow it to pollute our natural resources, causing public health crises.
The goal is to cultivate a “circular economy.” As sustainable retailer Toad&Co explains, circular economies minimize waste through cyclical reuse. Right now, our apparel industry is tragically underperforming in circularity. Ipek Yalcin-Enis again found that only 15– 20% of textile materials are recycled, compared to 80% of steel or 65% of paper. However, it’s not that we can’t recycle textiles; he also points out that “97% of textile waste can be recycled.” Moving forward, we must build up recycling and reuse systems at both the production and post-consumer levels.
It’s likely you’ve already interacted with recycled fabric. Little by little, stores like Old Navy or Target are beginning to use polyester sourced from recycled plastic instead of virgin oil. By intentionally buying clothes specifically made from recycled polyester, we can influence companies to manufacture more of these garments.
That being said, it is hard to recycle used fabric itself. Unlike paper or steel, the process of melting down used polyester and reforming new fibers from old is difficult. Also, clothes made from blended fibers like acrylic- or cotton-poly are especially difficult to recycle, because the fibers cannot be separated as they need to be in order for the polyester to be melted.
Although it is difficult to make new fabric out of old fabric, this cloth can still easily be downcycled into other usable products. For example, rags can be cut into small pieces and used as stuffing or insulation. These uses are considered downcycling because their simplicity diminishes the economic value of the fabric faster.
Ultimately, even with thousands of productive ways to recycle clothes, if we cannot figure out how to collect used fabric and reintroduce it to the economy as input material, it will become waste. It is likely textile recovery rates are low because we haven’t yet established the needed infrastructure. Just like it has taken decades to establish collection systems and economic demand for recycled paper, it will take time to similarly build up the textile recycling sector.
Recycling strengthens the circular economy, but because of limitations with blended fabric and collection systems, reuse is sometimes a better strategy to perpetuate the usefulness of a garment.
For example, clothes are often thrown away because of small tears or holes. This type of damage is actually simple and inexpensive to repair. The problem is that over recent decades, we have lost the basic sewing skills which allowed us to easily repair these minor clothing damages.
Science Daily published research by PhD Pamela Norum which explained that decreasing family consumer science class funding has directly led to the generational sewing knowledge gap. Thus, if we learn to sew, we can save our clothes.
That being said, some circumstances simply demand we clean out our closets. When we grow out of clothes or styles, and need to get rid of clothing which is undamaged, consider reselling items or donating them to thrift stores so others can use what is still serviceable.
Believe it or not, I actually purchased my previously mentioned beautiful pants from my local Goodwill. While recycling centers and textile manufacturers have the responsibility to build up collection systems, make more clothes from recycled fabric, and downcycle, we individually can bolster apparel circularity by thrifting, reselling, and mending our clothes.
