During the COVID-19 pandemic, New York Times bestselling author Morgan Jerkins turned to heartwarming films from her childhood. She was “reminded of the power of the imagination and the preciousness of experiencing life as a child. [She is] also reminded that no matter how old one gets, there is still a child in there somewhere” (Jerkins). During the midst of worldwide physical quarantine practices, this phenomenon served as a coping mechanism, or, as psychological researchers and professors explain, a “way to overcome unpleasant feelings and find relief from loneliness and stress” (Gabbiadini, et al.). However, while the physical effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have subsided, its emotional and social effects still linger today. Studies report loneliness and depression as commonly experienced feelings during the pandemic, and such feelings have been connected to both social well-being and external stressors (Nisbett, et al.). While mechanisms exist to address these feelings, one that has become increasingly popular in modern society is the increase in entertainment media consumption (Wulf, et al.).
Popular forms of consumption methods such as binge-watching, escapist tendencies, nostalgia, and others are on the rise. Why are these specific consumption habits so frequent when addressing feelings of loneliness and connection in modern society? This paper compiles the results and suggestions of numerous studies on media consumption habits as coping mechanisms to address the following questions. How do different media consumption habits of modern film and television, such as binge-watching and nostalgic escapism, affect viewers’ feelings of loneliness and connection? Are these habits viable solutions to loneliness or do they stifle the underlying problem? By examining both the potential causes and effects of nostalgic escapism, identification with media characters, and binge-watching, this report attempts to define and clarify how these differing media consumption habits affect feelings of loneliness and connection.
Nostalgic Media Use and Escapism, Identification with Media Characters, and Binge-Watching in Society
One common coping mechanism for feelings of loneliness and connection is nostalgic escapism. Researchers and professors at various German universities define nostalgia as “a self-conscious, bittersweet but predominantly positive and fundamentally social emotion that is triggered when reflecting on fond memories and past times of one’s life” (Wulf, et al.). Escapism as a coping practice has dual connotations, and researchers have had difficulty defining it. Psychologists and researchers at the University of North Texas define it positively, stating that escapism is “the consumption of media that allows individuals to temporarily forget the stresses and anxieties of their current situation, fostering a sense of social bonding and emotional relief.” Such a practice, they argue, is likely to promote social connection rather than a sense of loneliness (Nisbett, et al.). However, Zlatina Nikolova, a lecturer at the University of Exeter, takes an opposing approach. “Escapism,” she explains, “involves the use of media to avoid or disengage from real-life problems and emotional distress, often by immersing oneself in nostalgic or comforting content” (Nikolova). Escapism is used as an avoidance mechanism rather than a positive practice.
In either case, nostalgia and escapism are clearly present in modern media. Genres or series rely heavily on both nostalgia and escapism to offer a different reality to which one can escape for a time, effectively drawing viewers in (Wulf, et al.). Writers give as examples the Netflix series The Tiger King, Disney movies, and the popular 1999 film Never Been Kissed (Nisbett, et al.; Nikolova; Jerkins). The nostalgic elements of this escapism further provide a sense of comfort and connection to one’s past, as highlighted by Jerkins’ experience at the beginning.
Identification with media characters is another possible mechanism to address loneliness and connection. This can include emotional engagement, adoption of perspectives, and/or mimicry of character behavior to provide a sense of companionship or belonging. Media psychologists further describe the idea as “how individuals put themselves in the place of a character and participate in the media character’s experiences” (Gabbiadini, et al.). According to previous studies, the practice of identifying with media characters is typically associated with escapism stemming from feelings of loneliness and isolation. “[T]he desire to escape from unpleasant emotions, such as loneliness, is fulfilled more effectively if individuals identify with media characters” (Gabbiadini, et al.). Other possible motivations can also be linked to identification with media characters. In an article on the same topic, Patrick Wanis, a behavior and relationship expert, suggests similarly held values, similar personalities, an empathetic and emotional connection, parallel experiences, and pain relief are also viable motivators to relate with a media character (Wanis). Such connections can facilitate increased emotional well-being, though they may also degrade one’s ability to foster real-life connections.
Binge-watching has also been identified as a possible coping mechanism for feelings of loneliness, connection, and isolation. While multiple sources agreed that binge-watching is a difficult concept to define within specific parameters, Nikolova gives a basis for the habit: “Binge-watching refers to the consumption of several episodes of a series or multiple films in a single session” (Nikolova). Jerkins’ definition also highlights the relationship between nostalgic escapism and binge-watching, stating, “Rewatching movies from one’s youth in extended sessions can be seen as a form of binge-watching, providing a nostalgic escape from present-day challenges” (Jerkins). Other writers acknowledge the use of binge-watching as a form of “[escapism] from current stressors” and a desire “to seek comfort in familiar narratives” (Nisbett, et al.; Wulf, et al.). Binge-watching, whether as a coping practice or not, is heavily used worldwide. One study found that over eighty percent of participants reported engaging in binge-watching (Gabbiadini, et al.).
All three of the highlighted coping practices were researched to define their influences on social well-being, especially pertaining to feelings of loneliness and connection. It is important to understand social well-being in the context of the studies. Researchers provide one interpretation as “the positive effects of social interactions and connections” (Wulf, et al.). The possible coping mechanisms addressed in this report are presented as solutions to loneliness. Nikolova cautions that it is important to recognize, however, that loneliness can be and frequently is elective, and that nostalgic escapism, repetitive watching, and elective solitude are an extension of self-care whose effects depend completely on the individual’s perceptions and feelings. “Such practices of entertainment and self-care [are] a natural extension…and [are] not harmful in [themselves], just as loneliness is not necessarily detrimental to one’s existence” (Nikolova). Regardless, other researchers found that “higher feelings of loneliness were associated with higher levels of problematic digital technologies usage” (Gabbiadini, et al.). Thus, media consumption habits used as coping mechanisms can have both positive and problematic outcomes.
Impact on Social Well-Being, Loneliness, and Connection
Defining nostalgic escapism, identification with media characters, and binge-watching as possible coping mechanisms facilitates a better understanding of their effects on loneliness and connection.
According to the following studies, nostalgic escapism plays a dual role in the development or destruction of one’s social well-being; it can help an individual develop a sense of mindfulness in the past, yet it can potentially isolate them from the present. For example, nostalgia can provide a connection to one’s past, emotional relief, and comfort, as highlighted in Jerkins’ experiences with nostalgic media during the pandemic. She explains, “in times of trauma…when I watch old movies, I nurture my inner child.” This “inner child” is an idea that the values and ideas from one’s childhood influence the way one thinks in adulthood (Jerkins). Further attempting to explain this effect, psychological researchers claim that “if successful, escapist media usage can lead to ‘mood enhancement, improved well-being, increased confidence, restored energy, and relaxation’” (Wulf, et al.). However, studies also argue that over-engagement with nostalgic media can promote social detachment and lessen one’s ability to address current challenges. “Being enthralled in a narrative,” Nisbett, Dunn, and Paul suggest, “allows for escapism, even momentarily, from reality” (Nisbett, et al.). It is possible, then, that such nostalgic media consumption encourages the avoidance of responsibility and an overreliance on the naivete of one’s past rather than addressing pressing current situations.
Furthermore, nostalgic escapism can prevent or worsen feelings of loneliness. Researchers explain two sides of nostalgic escapism as a coping mechanism to address a fear of isolation or loneliness: a “prevention focus” (or dysfunctional escapism) and a “promotion focus” (or functional escapism). “Although some people may engage in activities to prevent or distract them from existing problems, others may do so for the positive experiences associated with them, such as recovering from stress” (Wulf, et al.). Drawing from the conclusions of this study, it is likely that feelings of both loneliness and connection due to the use of nostalgic escapism stem from one’s approach to the initial social problem.
The identification with media characters by the individual also has both positive (promotion) and negative (prevention) effects. Media character identification as a form of companionship and loneliness reduction is one such perspective. Psychological professors conclude, “…developing an imaginary relationship with a media persona promotes empathetic connection with the media character by experiencing emotional and cognitive absorption into a media narrative. Through this process…viewers satisfy the fundamental human need to develop and maintain meaningful social bonds” (Gabbiadini, et al.). Wanis also explains this phenomenon of an “empathetic connection” as a “parasocial relationship” (one-sided). “…You ‘feel’ and believe that you know [the character] …you want to know everything about…their emotions and experiences; their story deeply affects you” (Wanis). Such a relationship with a character, however fictional they may be, could serve as someone or something to bond with, giving one a feeling of companionship amid social isolation.
Wanis also considers an opposing perspective to his initial claim. A deep relationship with media characters can lead to a difficulty to “differentiate between a relationship with a fictional character and a relationship with a real person” (Wanis). Another effect to consider is the possibility of social comparison. Modern media often displays deep narratives and grand heroes with a specific role to play, and as audiences develop close connections with characters, they may feel pressure to mimic or replicate similar experiences.
Binge-watching’s effect on social well-being and feelings of loneliness and connection is much more recent and undetermined. For instance, university researchers express two positive themes behind binge-watching: “distraction [through] escapism” and “staying connected with others.” They found that “many study respondents reported both being transported in the narrative and appreciating not thinking about the pandemic for a while” (Nisbett, et al.). They believe this coping mechanism functions as a source of comfort and relief in pressing and stressful times, as well to overcome the lonely feelings brought on by the pandemic. The writers also found, contrary to popularly held opinion, that people took part in show-watching for “a bonding point with other people. One respondent noted, ‘I’m bored in the house’ taking note of the isolation and boredom that came along with pandemic stay-at-home orders” (Nisbett, et al.).
However, numerous studies have been conducted concerning binge-watching and its negative effects on the individual. Nikolova recognizes some of these effects, such as “social disconnection, the neglect of one’s responsibilities, weight gain, and other detrimental health practices” (Nikolova). Others stress the importance of recognizing when binge-watching isn’t a “temporary strategy,” but a “consequence of more persistent psychological conditions” (Gabbiadini, et al.). In this sense, binge-watching would negatively affect the viewer’s ability to pursue social connections.
Analysis, Themes, and Implications
Based on the findings of the collective studies, the writers collectively agree that multiple coping mechanisms are utilized in society as a solution to feelings of loneliness and connection. These can be functional, dysfunctional, or unaffected by external stress, fear of isolation, and anxiety. The sources address a wide variety of such coping mechanisms, specifically nostalgic escapism, identification and emotional connection with media characters, and binge-watching as a form of temporary or long-term relief from real-life issues. Do these coping mechanisms truly solve the issue of social loneliness, or do they sweep it under the emotional rug for a later version of oneself to find? Each source attempts to provide a conclusion and suggestion for the promotion of social connection and well-being.
As expected, there are also a few prominent contradictions and shortcomings to the studies. Each source’s conclusion has a differing nature. The majority argue that nostalgic media use, identification with media characters, and binge-watching promote social well-being and connection. However, some conclude that these coping mechanisms are purely influenced by “promotional” or “[preventative] foci” (Wulf, et al.). Emotional states of loneliness and well-being depend completely on the motivation of the individual (Nikolova). Such contradictions are probably due to the contemporary nature of the topic in question; they likely cannot conclude causation between media consumption habits and their influence on loneliness and connection. Wulf, Breuer, and Schmitt state it clearly; “We are further unable to answer the question of whether turning to nostalgic media does actually alleviate loneliness and isolation during lockdown measures and if it does, how long-lasting these effects may be” (Wulf, et al.). Another shortcoming to most of these studies is that they were conducted amid the COVID-19 pandemic. It is possible that societal norms and perceptions have changed since the effective return to regular social activities in late 2021 into 2022.
Though the studies do differ in some respects, they explain implications of media consumption habits on societal well-being. These studies influence current media producers, such as Disney and Netflix, to emphasize streaming services and the use of nostalgia to appeal to a society that is becoming more isolated. Nikolova accentuates one example; “Transforming into a site of nostalgia for many generations and fandoms, Disney Plus challenges the skepticism that surrounds solitary extensive media viewership and rebrands its titles as objects of comfort and self-care, building on its relationship with audiences” (Nikolova). The results and conclusions of these studies also provide audiences with a new external perspective with which one can approach possible coping mechanisms in their own life. As stated before, loneliness, nostalgic escapism, repetitive watching, and solitude are possibly an extension of self-care whose effects depend completely on the individual’s perceptions and feelings (Nikolova).
Conclusion
In summary, various media consumption habits such as nostalgic escapism, identification with media characters, and binge-watching are frequently used by the individual to cope with modern issues, escape from reality, and to distract oneself. The studies outlined in this paper observed both positive and negative effects of these coping mechanisms on social well-being, especially as pertaining to feelings of loneliness and connection. Both positive effects, such as mood enhancement, joy, empathy, and social bonding, and negative effects, such as avoiding responsibility and an inability to address modern issues, were acknowledged. Based on the studies, external research, and my own knowledge of the topic, further research should be done to continue to improve understanding of modern media consumption habits. This leaves room for thought. Is there a balance between engaging with modern media in a functional way, or are the repercussions of these coping mechanisms too unstable to fully address the problem of loneliness and connection?
Works Cited
Gabbiadini, Alessandro, Cristina Baldissarri, Roberta Rosa Valtorta, Federica Durante, and Silvia Mari. “Loneliness, Escapism, and Identification with Media Characters: An Exploration of the Psychological Factors Underlying Binge-Watching Tendency.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 12, 2021, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8771202/, doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.785970.
Jerkins, Morgan. “Rewatching Movies of My Youth to Escape and Recall Simpler Times.” The Guardian, 4 Sep. 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/sep/04/the-uplift-old-movies-escape-youth.
Nikolova, Zlatina. “Touching Disney: Loneliness and Sources of Comfort in the Digital Age.” New Formations, no. 109, 2023, pp. 62–77. Academic Search Ultimate, https://lib.byu.edu/remoteauth/?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip&db=asn&AN=173390874&site=ehost-live&scope=site, doi:10.3898/NEWF:109.05.2023.
Nisbett, Gwendelyn S., Stephanie Schartel Dunn, and Newly Paul. “The Escapism and Social Bond of Pandemic Binge Watching.” Persevering During the Pandemic: Stories of Resilience, Creativity, and Connection, by Deborah A. Macey, Michelle Napierski-Prancl, and David Staton, Rowman & Littlefield, 2022, pp. 225-239.
Wanis, Patrick. “The Psychology Of Identifying & Bonding With Movie Characters.” May 30, 2019, https://www.patrickwanis.com/the-psychology-of-identifying-bonding-with-movie-characters-fandom/.
Wulf, Tim, Johannes S. Breuer, and Josephine B. Schmitt. “Escaping the Pandemic Present: The Relationship between Nostalgic Media Use, Escapism, and Well-being during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Psychology of Popular Media, 2021, https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/ppm-ppm0000357.pdf.
